Anthropology

But this dearth was hardly ever absolute and altogether rather short-lived. Black peppercorns, storing easily and having a high mass per volume, never ceased to be a profitable trade item. In the Middle Ages, international traders were nicknamed Pfeffersäcke ("pepper-sacks&quot in German towns of the Hanseatic League and elsewhere. As the Modern Era came into full swing, wars were fought by European powers, between themselves and in complex alliances and enmities with Indian Ocean states, about control of the supply of spices, perhaps the most archetypal being Black Pepper fruit. Today, Black Pepper corns of the three preparations (green, white and black) are one of the most widely used spices of plant origin worldwide.

One Piper species has gained large-scale use as a stimulant. Betel (P. betle) leaves are used to wrap betel palm nut slices; its sap helps release the stimulating effect of these "cookies" which are widely known as pan in India.

Conversely, another Piper species, Kava, is used for its depressant effects, although paradoxically it also acts as an euphoriant. In the Pacific region, where it has been widely spread as a canoe plant, kava (P. methysticum) is used to produce a calming and socializing drink somewhat similar to alcohol and benzodiazapines but without many of the negative side effects and less of an addiction risk. It has also become popular elsewhere in recent decades, and is used as a medical plant. However, pills that contain parts of the whole plant have occasionally shown a strong hepatotoxic effect, which has led to the banning of kava in many countries.[needs update] On the other hand, the traditional preparation of the root as a calming drink appears to pose little, if any, such hazard.[7][8][needs update]

See also betel leaf, Kava, kava culture.